Indian Culture
Indian Culture - Various Groups
African Roots - The Quilombos
African Roots - The Quilombos - Various Groups
It is hard to define Brazilian culture as the influences are many and varied. There is scarcely a culture in the world which has not, in some small way, influenced the Brazilians.
The original culture of Brazil, that of the Indians, is strongly evident in the use of foods and drinks. Manioc, potatoes, "mate" and guarana have all become staples of the Brazilian diet. Other Indian objects regularly in use include hammocks, dugout canoes and many woven items.
The vast numbers of slaves shipped over from Africa, also left their mark. African cultural influence is most strongly seen in the Northeast, where food, music and religion all come from those originally brought over in the slave ships.
The various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia have all imposed certain aspects of their traditional lifestyles, creating greater diversity within the overall Brazilian cultural picture.
As a result of this cultural mix, Brazil's people are not only well-known for their warmth, spontaneity and friendliness, but are also seen to have countless regional differences, accents and good-natured rivalries. Old cultures mix with the new and everyone is firmly convinced that their way of life is best! "Cariocas" (those from Rio de Janeiro) and "Paulistas" (from Sao Paulo) are probably the strongest rivals, the former being, in the eyes of the "Paulistas," beach-loving, irresponsible hedonists. In response Cariocas claim that their 'unfortunate' neighbors care only about money and collectively suffer from workaholism and neurosis. Northeasterners are supposedly slow and simple, while those from Minas Gerais are religious and mean. All Brazilians unite to tell jokes against the Portuguese. Other signs of unity include a passion for football, the country literally stops for Brazil's World Cup appearances, a love of music and a great degree of sociability.
The original culture of Brazil, that of the Indians, is strongly evident in the use of foods and drinks. Manioc, potatoes, "mate" and guarana have all become staples of the Brazilian diet. Other Indian objects regularly in use include hammocks, dugout canoes and many woven items.
The vast numbers of slaves shipped over from Africa, also left their mark. African cultural influence is most strongly seen in the Northeast, where food, music and religion all come from those originally brought over in the slave ships.
The various immigrant groups from Europe and Asia have all imposed certain aspects of their traditional lifestyles, creating greater diversity within the overall Brazilian cultural picture.
As a result of this cultural mix, Brazil's people are not only well-known for their warmth, spontaneity and friendliness, but are also seen to have countless regional differences, accents and good-natured rivalries. Old cultures mix with the new and everyone is firmly convinced that their way of life is best! "Cariocas" (those from Rio de Janeiro) and "Paulistas" (from Sao Paulo) are probably the strongest rivals, the former being, in the eyes of the "Paulistas," beach-loving, irresponsible hedonists. In response Cariocas claim that their 'unfortunate' neighbors care only about money and collectively suffer from workaholism and neurosis. Northeasterners are supposedly slow and simple, while those from Minas Gerais are religious and mean. All Brazilians unite to tell jokes against the Portuguese. Other signs of unity include a passion for football, the country literally stops for Brazil's World Cup appearances, a love of music and a great degree of sociability.
There are approximately 200 Indian societies living in Brazil; 200 cultures with distinct languages, religions and social organizations. This represents one of the greatest cultural treasures of the world, attracting hundreds of specialists, mainly linguists and anthropologists. This treasure, however, is under constant threat mainly due to conflicts over land and the advance of non-Indians on Indian territories. The Federal Constitution declares the inalienable right of the Indians to possess the land which they occupy, but, due to the vast spread of Brazilian territory and the shortage of resources, the government agency in charge of defending and guaranteeing the interests and the rights of the Indians, FUNAI (Fundacao Nacional do Indio - National Indian Foundation) has a difficult time enforcing the law, guaranteeing adequate health care and education, and implementing the projects for productive activities. The material culture of the Indian people expresses to the other sectors of society, their vision of the universe and, almost always, carries out a utilitarian function in the daily routine of the tribal community. But this vision has been influenced by a variety of pressures to which the Brazilian Indians are submitted, for their land is coveted by the local non-Indians due to its rich flora, fauna and undersoil.
The lack of resources together with the influence of the non-indigenous populations has had repercussions on the cultural production of the Brazilian indians. Excluded from this tendency are those Indian tribes who still live in isolation, with no contact with the so-called civilized world, estimated by FUNAI to be about 60 communities in the Amazon.
The influence of the non-Indians of the region on the Indian people can be perceived in their artifacts. During the last few years, agents from FUNAI have verified a lower quality in the artifacts they produce. This process coincides with the advance of non-Indians on their territory, which has provoked environmental changes and deprived the Indians of the raw materials necessary for the production of their art. Besides this, the low investment in the areas of education, health and productive activities, has caused the indigenous societies to be susceptible to regional influences and dependent on benefits from the State.
The lack of resources together with the influence of the non-indigenous populations has had repercussions on the cultural production of the Brazilian indians. Excluded from this tendency are those Indian tribes who still live in isolation, with no contact with the so-called civilized world, estimated by FUNAI to be about 60 communities in the Amazon.
The influence of the non-Indians of the region on the Indian people can be perceived in their artifacts. During the last few years, agents from FUNAI have verified a lower quality in the artifacts they produce. This process coincides with the advance of non-Indians on their territory, which has provoked environmental changes and deprived the Indians of the raw materials necessary for the production of their art. Besides this, the low investment in the areas of education, health and productive activities, has caused the indigenous societies to be susceptible to regional influences and dependent on benefits from the State.
The need to survive in adverse conditions has caused the Pataxo Ha-Ha-Hae, who live in the south of the state of Bahia, to extensively produce their artifacts but without their traditional quality. Surrounded by farmers and still fighting for the right to possess the land immemoriably occupied by them, their physical space has been destroyed and their local flora reduced. The Pataxo artifacts do not, by far, represent their material culture. Today, they produce works with the intent of collecting resources that will permit them to consume products and goods produced by non-Indians. Previously, the Pataxo artifacts were rich in feathers typical of the birds of the region which revealed aspects of their mystic culture. The feathers used today are of common birds, dyed with strong colors, which are far from portraying the true Pataxo culture. They also chose to produce combs and other wooden objects, which have good commercial acceptance.
The Fulnio Indians, from the state of Pernambuco, also face a similar situation. Experts in the art of weaving, the Fulnio have a very hard time finding raw materials for the production of baskets, mats and other pieces. Thus, the Fulnio also work with wood, making bowls, combs and other objects with purely commercial intent. The pressure from "civilization," however, has not changed their religious behavior nor influenced the social organization of the group. The Fulnio are concerned about preserving their language, continuing with their rituals and teaching the youngsters their traditions.
The Guarani-Kaiowa, from Mato Grosso do Sul, are another example of a people strongly influenced by contact with the national society. Each year the suicide rate within this group grows.
The gradual loss of geographic space of the village (tekoha) has jeopardized the social organization of the Guarani-Kaiowa, strongly linked to the mystic concepts. The space of the village is related to that which is sacred and its privation causes a loss of reference to the activities of the group. It is not only the loss of the Tekoha that has altered the cultural aspects of these Indians. The process of destruction of the cultural values of the Guarani-Kaiowas was due, in great part, to the presence of various protestant sects which penetrated the group with the intent of giving them assistance. The influence of these religious missions, which imposed strange concepts such as the concept of sin, created great conflicts.
Without their mystic reference, intrinsic to the land they should occupy, and contaminated by other religious understandings, many Indians considered and still consider suicide an alternative to end their internal conflicts. When they do not resort to this drastic solution, they turn to the consumption of alcohol which leads to their degradation in the same manner. Some, however, seek the alternative of finding employment on the farms located on their traditional land. This decision, in itself, represents a total withdrawal from the cultural standards of the Guarani-Kaiowa. The Indians are underpaid. However, it is the only way many Guarani-Kaiowa find to stay alive in the hope that some day they may be able to live in the tekoha again.
The indigenous populations in the south, such as the Guarani, Kaingang and Xokleng do not have a relevant production of cultural material expressed through any particular artifacts, be they ceramic, featherwork or other objects. Although they preserve their language and habits, these groups engage in serious conflicts over the possession of land due to the high demographic density registered in that region. Many of these groups have incorporated predominant elements of behavior from the national society and dedicated themselves to agriculture and stock raising.
The Fulnio Indians, from the state of Pernambuco, also face a similar situation. Experts in the art of weaving, the Fulnio have a very hard time finding raw materials for the production of baskets, mats and other pieces. Thus, the Fulnio also work with wood, making bowls, combs and other objects with purely commercial intent. The pressure from "civilization," however, has not changed their religious behavior nor influenced the social organization of the group. The Fulnio are concerned about preserving their language, continuing with their rituals and teaching the youngsters their traditions.
The Guarani-Kaiowa, from Mato Grosso do Sul, are another example of a people strongly influenced by contact with the national society. Each year the suicide rate within this group grows.
The gradual loss of geographic space of the village (tekoha) has jeopardized the social organization of the Guarani-Kaiowa, strongly linked to the mystic concepts. The space of the village is related to that which is sacred and its privation causes a loss of reference to the activities of the group. It is not only the loss of the Tekoha that has altered the cultural aspects of these Indians. The process of destruction of the cultural values of the Guarani-Kaiowas was due, in great part, to the presence of various protestant sects which penetrated the group with the intent of giving them assistance. The influence of these religious missions, which imposed strange concepts such as the concept of sin, created great conflicts.
Without their mystic reference, intrinsic to the land they should occupy, and contaminated by other religious understandings, many Indians considered and still consider suicide an alternative to end their internal conflicts. When they do not resort to this drastic solution, they turn to the consumption of alcohol which leads to their degradation in the same manner. Some, however, seek the alternative of finding employment on the farms located on their traditional land. This decision, in itself, represents a total withdrawal from the cultural standards of the Guarani-Kaiowa. The Indians are underpaid. However, it is the only way many Guarani-Kaiowa find to stay alive in the hope that some day they may be able to live in the tekoha again.
The indigenous populations in the south, such as the Guarani, Kaingang and Xokleng do not have a relevant production of cultural material expressed through any particular artifacts, be they ceramic, featherwork or other objects. Although they preserve their language and habits, these groups engage in serious conflicts over the possession of land due to the high demographic density registered in that region. Many of these groups have incorporated predominant elements of behavior from the national society and dedicated themselves to agriculture and stock raising.
Three hundred years after the death of Zumbi, the leader of the black movement at the Palmares Quilombo, in the state of Pernambuco, the attention is focused on the situation of the rural centers scattered all over the country, which are inhabited by populations remanent from "quilombos." Some groups have been identified deep in the Amazon region and others dispersed in several villages of Maranhao, Sergipe, Bahia, Goias, Mato Grosso, Sao Paulo and Minas Gerais. The descendants of slaves brought from Africa no longer speak their ancestors' languages and many have lost their historic references. Numerous groups, having no access to the region's economy, ignore that article 68 of the Transitory Clauses of the 1988 Constitution has assured the descendants of the founders of "quilombos," who still live in dated areas, the possession of the land they occupy.
That is the direction in which the Palmares Foundation and scholars have moved, helping several of these communities, now threatened by farmers or groups who are after their land. This work is taking place simultaneously with a project aimed at valuing the roots of the black culture, honoring the 300th anniversary of the death of Zumbi, king of Palmares. They point out that, by complying with the Constitution, they are settling part of the debt that society has with the black population, who was enslaved in the past, and the majority of which still endure discrimination and prejudice today.
Palmares is nowadays the symbol of the black movement's campaign. This center of resistance was formed in 1604 by 40 runaway negroes and comprised several "quilombos." During almost 100 years, Palmares was constantly attacked by the Dutch and the Portuguese. History reports that Ganga Zumbi was the second to last king of the largest "quilombo" in the country. He was finally killed by his nephew Zumbi who did not accept the agreement between his uncle and the Portuguese, acceding that the inhabitants of "quilombos" would stop abducting the negroes who were still enslaved by farmers. Zumbi conducted a heroic resistance that terminated with the destruction of the "quilombo" and his death. He was killed on November 20th, 1695 and this date was chosen as the National Black Awareness Day.
The scholars and the members of the Palmares Foundation say that the myth of historic "quilombos," such as Palmares, though acting as a reference for the black people's fight for recognition, are the only ones remembered. As a matter of fact, according to reports, each "quilombo" had a different story. There were large resistance groups, but there were also others that were part of the region's social and economic context. Many of these groups were not persecuted and have survived to this date. The Palmares Foundation explains that even nowadays these groups are acknowledged as descendants of negroes from the "quilombos," and this will make it easier to try to implement the rights granted by the 1988 Constitution. The population living around the centers of descendants of slaves always calls these places "quilombos," "mocambos" (same as "quilombos") or black people's land.
Survey -
Mapping out the localities where communities remanent from the "quilombos" live has been a slow work. The information is being gathered at the Palmares Foundation, but so far only the state of Maranhao relies on an extensive work. In that state, four hundred and one black communities were spotted and, out of this total, one hundred can be classified as remanent from "quilombos," according to the lawyer Dimas Salustiano, who has supported the Palmares Foundation in the researches on the rights accorded to the black populations. "The situations faced by these groups who are scattered in several states are different, but, in general, they all endure a common problem: the risk of losing their land," he points out.
That is the direction in which the Palmares Foundation and scholars have moved, helping several of these communities, now threatened by farmers or groups who are after their land. This work is taking place simultaneously with a project aimed at valuing the roots of the black culture, honoring the 300th anniversary of the death of Zumbi, king of Palmares. They point out that, by complying with the Constitution, they are settling part of the debt that society has with the black population, who was enslaved in the past, and the majority of which still endure discrimination and prejudice today.
Palmares is nowadays the symbol of the black movement's campaign. This center of resistance was formed in 1604 by 40 runaway negroes and comprised several "quilombos." During almost 100 years, Palmares was constantly attacked by the Dutch and the Portuguese. History reports that Ganga Zumbi was the second to last king of the largest "quilombo" in the country. He was finally killed by his nephew Zumbi who did not accept the agreement between his uncle and the Portuguese, acceding that the inhabitants of "quilombos" would stop abducting the negroes who were still enslaved by farmers. Zumbi conducted a heroic resistance that terminated with the destruction of the "quilombo" and his death. He was killed on November 20th, 1695 and this date was chosen as the National Black Awareness Day.
The scholars and the members of the Palmares Foundation say that the myth of historic "quilombos," such as Palmares, though acting as a reference for the black people's fight for recognition, are the only ones remembered. As a matter of fact, according to reports, each "quilombo" had a different story. There were large resistance groups, but there were also others that were part of the region's social and economic context. Many of these groups were not persecuted and have survived to this date. The Palmares Foundation explains that even nowadays these groups are acknowledged as descendants of negroes from the "quilombos," and this will make it easier to try to implement the rights granted by the 1988 Constitution. The population living around the centers of descendants of slaves always calls these places "quilombos," "mocambos" (same as "quilombos") or black people's land.
Survey -
Mapping out the localities where communities remanent from the "quilombos" live has been a slow work. The information is being gathered at the Palmares Foundation, but so far only the state of Maranhao relies on an extensive work. In that state, four hundred and one black communities were spotted and, out of this total, one hundred can be classified as remanent from "quilombos," according to the lawyer Dimas Salustiano, who has supported the Palmares Foundation in the researches on the rights accorded to the black populations. "The situations faced by these groups who are scattered in several states are different, but, in general, they all endure a common problem: the risk of losing their land," he points out.
While most communities nowadays have a permanent contact with the national society, the situation of the Kalungas from Goias is special. Until recently, one could only reach the centers where they live after an endless journey on the back of a donkey, through difficult paths on rugged terrain. The older members of the community, in some cases, never left the former "quilombo" to see the towns. However, the younger population is already interested in the world around them and some even attend meetings with other groups, which are organized by the Palmares Foundation.
One group that stands out because of its cultural aspect is the one from Cafundo, in the Pirapora waterfall, in the state of Sao Paulo. One hundred and thirty families live in a rural area, 130 km from the city of Sao Paulo. Cafundo was a "quilombo" or a farm which was inherited by the former slaves. Their descendants still use words from their ancestors' vocabulary. Hat, for example, is chicongo; nose, muchinga; man, tata; ture is land and corn is called pungo.
Currently, the Cafundo population lives confined in an area of 90 hectares, which land grabbers conquered little by little. In this dispute, some negroes were killed and now the group dreams of reclaiming their property.
There are two rural groups of former slaves in the state of Rio de Janeiro: one lives in the Santa Izabel farm, in Valenca. Sixty families live there. The other is the former Campinho "quilombo," near Paraty. The inhabitants work in the fields and live in houses made of wattle and daub. In the Ribeira Valley, in the state of Sao Paulo, there are around 15 communities identified as descendants of slaves.
Though they have different degrees of contact with the national society, the fact is that the descendants of the "quilombos" are gradually becoming aware of the importance of their culture and search for a place in a society that kept them in isolation and discriminated against them. Despite the pressure, they try to redeem and safeguard old traditions. In many communities, festivities and dances are reminiscent of their ancestors' African rhythms.
In the Campinho "quilombo," samba is frequent, in spite of the growing invasion of television that fascinates all, especially the youngsters. The women work in the flour mills and the men can't live without a soccer match.
However, the awareness of the importance of a people's identity, which is becoming more and more deeply rooted is far more significant than the information from the modern world.
One group that stands out because of its cultural aspect is the one from Cafundo, in the Pirapora waterfall, in the state of Sao Paulo. One hundred and thirty families live in a rural area, 130 km from the city of Sao Paulo. Cafundo was a "quilombo" or a farm which was inherited by the former slaves. Their descendants still use words from their ancestors' vocabulary. Hat, for example, is chicongo; nose, muchinga; man, tata; ture is land and corn is called pungo.
Currently, the Cafundo population lives confined in an area of 90 hectares, which land grabbers conquered little by little. In this dispute, some negroes were killed and now the group dreams of reclaiming their property.
There are two rural groups of former slaves in the state of Rio de Janeiro: one lives in the Santa Izabel farm, in Valenca. Sixty families live there. The other is the former Campinho "quilombo," near Paraty. The inhabitants work in the fields and live in houses made of wattle and daub. In the Ribeira Valley, in the state of Sao Paulo, there are around 15 communities identified as descendants of slaves.
Though they have different degrees of contact with the national society, the fact is that the descendants of the "quilombos" are gradually becoming aware of the importance of their culture and search for a place in a society that kept them in isolation and discriminated against them. Despite the pressure, they try to redeem and safeguard old traditions. In many communities, festivities and dances are reminiscent of their ancestors' African rhythms.
In the Campinho "quilombo," samba is frequent, in spite of the growing invasion of television that fascinates all, especially the youngsters. The women work in the flour mills and the men can't live without a soccer match.
However, the awareness of the importance of a people's identity, which is becoming more and more deeply rooted is far more significant than the information from the modern world.
